Two-hegemony, the main purpose of the service strategy

July 1961, the United States has just successfully developed the use of “Samos” satellites, captured Soviet SS-7 and SS-8 deployed intercontinental ballistic missile tests, the Soviet Union opened a “missile gap” truth became the third the key Berlin crisis resolved smoothly, marking the space support forces boarded the stage of history.

Since then, the United States, the two superpowers, the Soviet Union from the strategic objective of global hegemony starting to build a more complete support for space power systems.

Since an important strategic position, it has been solely responsible for the construction of satellites by the US intelligence community, in order to facilitate confidential. US Department of Defense is leading the “Defense Satellite Communications System,” “Fleet Satellite Communication”, “Military Star” three communications satellite system construction, on this basis, build a “Air Force satellite communications” system for the US national command structure and strategic nuclear forces provided between the safe, reliable, high viability of the global two-way communications capability. Meanwhile, the US Department of Defense has also developed strategies for the deployment of ballistic missile early warning “Defense Support Program” satellite navigation for nuclear submarines “TRANSIT” satellite for global meteorological observation “DMSP” and other systems, the formation of a relatively complete system.

In order to compete with the United States, the Soviet Union launched a comprehensive space forces, from the development of “Zenith”, “amber” reconnaissance satellite “Lightning” communications satellite, “sail” navigation satellite, the “eye” early warning satellites and “Meteor” weather as the representative of satellite space power system.

Throughout the Cold War, the role of the US-Soviet space power is mainly reflected at the strategic level, both the use of near-real-time reconnaissance and early warning satellites to detect each other’s strategic dynamic use of communication satellites and navigation satellites for command and control of strategic nuclear forces, formation of an effective nuclear deterrence combat system, a profound impact on the world strategic pattern of the Cold war.

With space development focus to shift from military spacecraft launch vehicles, various military satellite systems gradually have the ability to use large-scale, the Soviet Union began to build a dedicated space forces command structure. In 1985, the US military set up a joint Space Command. Administration of the Soviet spacecraft in 1982, the formerly strategic rocket forces, responsible for the development of space power transfer scribe to support the Department of Defense, and later upgraded to bureau director of the spacecraft, so space support force directly under the arms of the Soviet Union became the Department of Defense.

    Pack and play, to expand the role of tactical action

The 1991 Gulf War, the US military space forces operations provided critical reconnaissance, early warning, communications, navigation, meteorological services, marking the beginning of space support from the strategic level into the tactical level.

Subsequently, the US military began to develop better able to support tactical space combat support forces launched a large-scale construction of various types of military satellites and upgrading. “Global Positioning System” fully completed “keyhole -12” “Future Imagery Architecture”, “space-based infrared system” and “Global Broadband Satellite Communication”, “Advanced Extremely High Frequency”, “Mobile User Objective System” and other new generation of satellites have been put into use. 2003 Iraq war, the total number up to 167 US satellite. By the end of 2015, US satellites in orbit nearly 400, of which more than 120 pieces of military satellites, forming a powerful space support operations capabilities.

In strengthening the power of construction, the US military in 2002, the Joint Space Command Strategic Command incorporated, unified management of the armed forces Space Command, in order to better organize and direct the power of space support strategic, operational and tactical military operations at all levels. The military services also formed their own space support forces and support the preparation of models to successfully achieve tactical level space support.

Russia’s lack of independence early strength, inherited the former Soviet space support force can maintain normal, resulting in a sharp decline in the number of satellites in orbit, and only 97 in orbit until 2002. In view of this situation, the Russian military space forces carried out the reform, the establishment of an independent space force in 2001, began to recover and rebuild its military satellite system. After the start of the “new look” reform, the Russian space force in 2011 to form the basis of the air and space defense troops, again in 2015 and the Air Force air and space defense troops merge to form air and space forces, responsible for the Russian spacecraft control, missile warning management system attacks and space monitoring system operation.

After the reform and adjustment, all kinds of Russian satellite system gradually restored. By the end of 2015, Russian satellites in orbit nearly 130, of which nearly 80 military satellites. But Russian military believes that blow from the air and space will be the main threat facing Russia, decide the future of air and space warfare has become the key to victory in the field, and therefore the full development of the Russian aerospace defense forces, space support forces in a subordinate position or service. In the previous reform, satellite surveillance, satellite communications, satellite navigation and other space support system construction management still the Russian Defense Ministry and General Staff Operations Department under the relevant commitment, the services are generally lacking space support personnel, operational and tactical levels than use low. During the Russia-Georgia war of 2008, the Russian military satellite reconnaissance had revealed not timely, satellite communication services and poor.

While the US and Russia to develop space forces, more and more countries joined the ranks of the space race. India announced in 2007 to establish the “Aerospace Defense Command”, to manage India’s national space assets, and space warfare weapon concept study, the Indian Air Force has been established aerospace brigade. Japan in 2009 adopted the “Basic Law Aviation”, the Japanese Air Self Defense Force to take advantage of space resources, and expand research-related policy formulation and planning to lay the legal basis for future space operations. Some other countries have also expressed varying degrees of military commitment to the development and use of space and plans.

    Defense against US efforts to seize the initiative

As more and more countries enter the field of space, space security environment has undergone significant changes. Especially in the US view, the space has a non-former “safe harbor.” US Joint Chiefs of Staff in 2013 edition of “space war” doctrine stated that the commander must take into account a malicious adversary action may be taken, and can continue to maintain military capability in the case of space capabilities downgrade. For this purpose, a step the US took the lead in the field of space, launched a series of offensive and defensive measures.

– Improve space surveillance capability. February 2015, the US Air Force and Lockheed – Martin launched the new “Space Fence” radar system construction work. The system can be monitored for the first time all over the United States via satellite from the master satellite elapsed time, attitude and orbit, etc., can also detect low orbit target as small as 10 cm in diameter, thereby greatly enhancing the US space situational awareness ability.The US Air Force ground-based photovoltaic system and deep space exploration systems, missile warning and space surveillance radar network system together constitute from low earth orbit to deep space orbit space surveillance systems perspective.

– Improve the existing space forces invulnerability. 2013 US military issued a “survivability and distributed space systems architecture” white paper proposes the use of structural separation, functional decomposition, load carrying, decentralized multi-track, multi-domain decomposition operations and other measures to improve the survivability of space systems support.

– Emphasis on the integrated use of space technology and traditional techniques. 2014 US release of “Towards a new strategy to offset the” proposed in the report, the US needs to soaring losses caused by the loss of the base system, the measures include accelerating the development of alternative GPS system, equipped with long endurance and / or aerial refueling capability. ” mixed level “intelligence surveillance and reconnaissance UAVs.

– The establishment of the development model construction space forces and civilian integration. US military plans to use leased wartime civil and commercial space systems and services, carrying a military payload on a commercial satellite, direct purchase of advanced commercial or commercial systems to the military, etc., to supplement the existing space support capabilities.

– By conducting military exercises in the development of space power construction using the theory. US Joint Staff, Air Force, Navy and Army space support operations in both the theme of military exercises. In 2001 the US Air Force Space Command began to dominate “Schriever” space war military exercises have been organized nine times.

– Strengthening Space Operations organization and command. September 2015, the US Defense Department and intelligence community established an inter-agency Joint Space Operations Center, responsible for the integration of satellite reconnaissance data, strengthening space reconnaissance capability, military satellite monitoring operation, to prevent potential adversaries to attack US space assets.

– Strengthening Space offensive forces. May 2015, the US X-37B flight test for the fourth time. Although the Americans called it “Orbital Test Vehicle,” but it remained silent on key information. Speculation, X-37B has the ability to take military action including control, capture and destroy enemy spacecraft, military reconnaissance on the enemy. In this sense, X-37B is likely to be the first human space fighter. In addition, the United States has stepped up the construction of space attack power laser, microwave, anti-satellite missiles, hoping to keep the lead in the space race in the future, continue to maintain its dominance.

    Overall, the world’s military powers have attached great importance to space support the construction and development of power, but the situation near several local wars, the only United States and Russia have a more comprehensive strategic, operational and tactical levels of space capabilities, other countries space is still the main force in the strategic use of the service. In the new space, the security situation, the US military has launched a new round of space forces change the face of the future US military space forces are likely to be a qualitative change occurs, information warfare appearance may therefore profoundly changed.

Original Manadrin Chinese:

随着太空技术不断发展，太空军事应用日益广泛，越来越多的国家加入了太空竞争行列

“谁控制了宇宙，谁就控制了地球；谁控制了空间，谁就控制了战争的主动权。”美国前总统肯尼迪的判断，推动了美国太空技术的发展，也将太空纳入了大国博弈和竞争的范畴。随着太空技术和太空力量的不断发展，太空军事应用日益广泛，在塑造国际战略格局、推动世界新军事变革等方面发挥了关键性作用。

    两强争霸，主要服务战略目的

1961年7月，美国利用刚刚研制成功的“萨莫斯”侦察卫星，拍摄到苏联SS-7和SS-8洲际弹道导弹试验部署情况，揭开了美苏“导弹差距”真相，成为第三次柏林危机顺利解决的关键，标志着太空支援力量登上了历史舞台。

此后，美、苏两个超级大国从全球争霸的战略目的出发，建起了较为完备的太空支援力量体系。

由于战略地位重要，侦察卫星的建设一直由美国情报界独立负责，以利保密。美国国防部则主导了“国防卫星通信系统”“舰队卫星通信”“军事星”三大通信卫星系统建设，在此基础上构建了“空军卫星通信”系统，为美国国家指挥机构和战略核部队之间提供安全、可靠、高存活性的双向全球通信能力。同时，美国国防部还研制部署了用于战略弹道导弹预警的“国防支援计划”卫星、用于核潜艇导航的“子午仪”卫星、用于全球气象探测的“国防气象卫星”等系统，形成了较为完备的体系。

为了与美国抗衡，苏联也开展了全面的太空力量建设，发展起以“天顶”“琥珀”侦察卫星、“闪电”通信卫星、“帆”导航卫星、“眼睛”预警卫星及“流星”气象卫星等为代表的太空力量体系。

整个冷战期间，美苏太空力量的作用主要体现在战略层面，双方利用侦察卫星和预警卫星近实时侦测对方的战略动态，利用通信卫星和导航卫星进行战略核部队指挥控制，形成了有效的核威慑作战体系，深刻影响了冷战时期的世界战略格局。

随着航天发展重点由运载火箭向军用航天器转变，各种军用卫星系统逐渐具备规模化运用能力，美苏开始组建专门的太空力量指挥机构。1985年，美军成立了联合太空司令部。苏联则于1982年把原属战略火箭军、负责发展太空支援力量的航天器总局转隶给国防部，而后又升格为航天器主任局，使太空支援力量成为了苏联国防部的直属兵种。

    群雄并起，作用向战役战术行动拓展

1991年的海湾战争中，太空力量为美军作战行动提供了关键的侦察、预警、通信、导航、气象等服务，标志着太空支援开始从战略层次进入到战役战术层次。

随后，美军开始大力发展能够更好地支持战役战术作战的太空支援力量，启动了各类军用卫星的大规模建设和升级换代。“全球定位系统”全面建成，“锁眼-12”“未来成像体系结构”“天基红外系统”“宽带全球卫星通信”“先进极高频”“移动用户目标系统”等新一代卫星相继投入使用。2003年的伊拉克战争中，美国使用卫星总数达167颗。截至2015年底，美国在轨卫星近400颗，其中军用卫星120余颗，形成了强大的太空支援作战能力。

在加强力量建设的同时，美军于2002年把联合太空司令部并入战略司令部，统管三军太空司令部，以更好地组织指挥太空支援力量战略、战役、战术各层次的军事行动。各军种也形成了各自的太空支援力量编制和支援模式，以顺利实现战役战术层次的太空支援。

俄罗斯独立初期国力不足，所继承的前苏联太空支援力量也无法正常维系，导致在轨卫星数量急剧下降，到2002年为止只有97颗在轨运行。针对这种局面，俄军进行了太空力量改革，于2001年成立了独立的航天兵，开始恢复和重建其军用卫星系统。“新面貌”改革开始后，俄于2011年以航天兵为基础组建了空天防御兵，2015年又把空军和空天防御兵合并组建了空天军，负责俄航天器发射控制、导弹预警袭击系统与太空监视系统的管理运行。

经过改革调整，俄各类卫星系统逐渐得到恢复。截至2015年底，俄在轨卫星近130颗，其中军用卫星近80颗。但俄军认为，来自空天的打击将是俄面临的主要威胁，空天已成为决定未来战争胜负的关键领域，因此俄全力发展空天防御力量，太空支援力量处于从属或服务地位。在历次改革中，卫星侦察、卫星通信、卫星导航等太空支援系统的建设管理仍由俄国防部及总参谋部下属的相关业务局承担，各军种也普遍缺乏太空支援人才，战役战术运用水平较低。在2008年俄格战争期间，俄军就曾暴露出卫星侦察不及时、卫星通信服务差等问题。

在美俄大力发展太空力量的同时，越来越多的国家加入了太空竞争的行列。印度2007年宣布要筹建“航空航天防御司令部”，以管理印度全国的空间资产，并对太空战武器进行概念研究，印度空军已经成立了航空航天大队。日本于2009年通过了《航空基本法》，使日本航空自卫队得以利用太空资源，并展开相关政策的研究、制定和规划，为未来太空行动奠定法理基础。其他一些国家也不同程度表达出军事开发和利用太空的决心和计划。

    攻防对抗，美国着力抢占先机

随着越来越多的国家进入太空领域，太空安全环境发生了显著变化。特别是在美军看来，太空已非昔日的“安全港”。美军参联会在2013年版《太空作战》条令中指出，指挥官必须考虑到敌对方可能采取的恶意行动，并能够在太空能力降级的情况下继续保持军事能力。为达到这一目的，美军率先一步，在太空攻防领域推出了一系列措施。

——提高太空监视能力。2015年2月，美空军和洛克希德-马丁公司启动了新型“太空篱笆”雷达系统建设工作。该系统可在第一时间监控到所有从美国上空经过的卫星，掌握卫星经过的时间、姿态和轨道等，还可探测直径小至10厘米的中低轨道目标，从而大大增强美国的太空态势感知能力。该系统与美空军陆基光电深空探测系统、导弹预警雷达网和太空监视系统共同构成从近地轨道到深空轨道的立体空间目标监视系统。

——提高现有太空力量的抗毁性。2013年美军发布了《抗毁性与分散式太空系统体系结构》白皮书，提出采用结构分离、功能分解、载荷搭载、多轨道分散、多作战域分解等措施，来提高太空支援系统生存能力。

——重视太空技术与传统技术的综合使用。2014年美发布的《迈向新抵消战略》报告中提出，美国需要对冲天基系统丧失所带来的损失，措施包括加快研发GPS替代系统、装备具有长持久力和/或空中加油能力的“高低混合”情报监视与侦察无人机等。

——建立军民融合的太空力量建设发展模式。美军计划采用战时租用民用与商用太空系统服务、在商业卫星上搭载军用载荷、直接购买先进的民用或商业系统转为军用等方式，补充现有太空支援能力的不足。

——通过开展军事演习发展太空力量建设运用理论。美军联合参谋部、空军、海军和陆军都有以太空支援作战为主题的军事演习。2001年美空军太空司令部开始主导“施里弗”太空战军事演习，迄今已举办9次。

——强化太空作战组织指挥。2015年9月，美国防部与情报界成立了机构间联合太空作战中心，负责整合卫星侦察数据、强化太空侦察能力，监控美军卫星运行情况，防范潜在对手攻击美国太空资产。

——加强太空进攻力量建设。2015年5月，美国X-37B进行了第四次飞行试验。虽然美国人将之称为“轨道试验飞行器”，但在关键信息上却三缄其口。外界猜测，X-37B有能力采取的军事行动包括控制、捕获和摧毁敌国航天器，对敌国进行军事侦察等。在这个意义上，X-37B很可能将是人类首架太空战斗机。此外，美国还加强了激光、微波、反卫星导弹等太空攻击力量的建设，希望在未来的太空竞赛中保持先机，继续维持其霸主地位。

总的看来，世界军事强国都高度重视太空支援力量的建设和发展，但就近几次局部战争情况来看，只有美、俄具备了较为完备的战略、战役和战术层次太空能力，其他国家的太空力量仍主要服务于战略运用。在新的太空安全形势下，美军又发起了新一轮太空力量变革，未来美军太空力量的面貌有可能会发生质的变化，信息化战争面貌也可能因此而发生深刻改变。